How much does the wrong FNP program actually cost you? With over 30,000 Family Nurse Practitioner certificates awarded each year, the supply of options is not the problem. The problem is that tuition for an online MSN-FNP ranges from roughly $9,000 to over $55,000, clinical placement support varies from full preceptor matching to "find your own," and first-time certification pass rates can swing by 20 points between schools. Choosing poorly can add years of debt and delay board eligibility.
The programs ranked on this page were evaluated using a composite quality score that factors in cost, graduation rates, and program-level earnings, then filtered for online or hybrid delivery. Not every accredited FNP program made the cut, and a low sticker price alone was not enough to earn a spot.
Top Online Family Nurse Practitioner Programs for 2027
Choosing an online FNP program usually comes down to cost and payoff, so this list highlights schools that deliver on both. Each program below offers an online or hybrid FNP pathway at the master's, doctoral, or post-master's certificate level, selected for pairing a manageable net price with strong post-graduation earning power for working RNs. Graduation rates and earnings figures are institution-wide federal data points, not FNP-specific outcomes, but they are useful signals of institutional strength.
How we ranked these
- Net price affordability
- Institution-wide graduation rates
- Post-graduation earnings
- Online delivery eligibility
- NCES-IPEDS federal institutional data — nces.ed.gov
- College Scorecard graduate earnings — collegescorecard.ed.gov
- Independent program research
- Internal program database
University of Toledo
#1Toledo, OH · $18,000 – $29,000/yr
Best for: Working RNs wanting flexible MSN to DNP options
Toledo is one of the few public universities offering the full FNP ladder online: a hybrid MSN with in-person labs, a 100% online BSN-to-DNP track, and a post-master's DNP, all CCNE-accredited with asynchronous coursework. A formal partnership with ProMedica feeds clinical rotations in primary care, urgent care, and school-based health clinics, a meaningful advantage for Midwest RNs. The institution reports a 57% graduation rate, an average net price near $17,250, and median earnings around $50,600 for former students a decade after enrollment.
- Hybrid delivery: online coursework with in-person labs
- CCNE accredited program
- Full-time and part-time study options
- Prepares for ANCC or AANP certification
- Clinical experiences in primary care settings
- Capstone project and service learning opportunities
- 100% online, asynchronous coursework
- 73 total credit hours with 1,030 to 1,170 clinical hours
- 180 clinical hours per clinical course
- Full-time and part-time pacing for working nurses
- DNP Project synthesizing clinical scholarship and analysis
- Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education accredited
- For MSN-educated nurses seeking advanced clinical practice
- 100% online with no campus visits required
- Evidence-based practice project mentored by faculty
- CCNE accredited
- Asynchronous classes with full- or part-time options
Saint Louis University
#2Saint Louis, MO · $26,000/yr
Best for: Nurses needing reliable clinical preceptor placement
SLU's Jesuit mission shows up in its whole-person approach to FNP education, and its online MSN can be finished in as little as two years with only two campus visits. Post-master's certificate and BSN-to-DNP options stack for nurses who want to keep advancing, and the school assigns each student a faculty advisor while helping secure clinical preceptors. The university reports an 80% graduation rate, an average net price near $24,400, and median earnings around $70,800 a decade after enrollment.
- Online format, complete in as little as two years
- Fall, spring, and summer start dates
- Faculty advisor and personalized degree completion plan
- $0 application fee
- Over $1 million in scholarships awarded annually
- Prepares graduates for national FNP certification
- Mostly online with one St. Louis campus residency
- 16 credit hours at $1,450 per credit
- University helps secure clinical preceptors
- Transfer up to six credits
- Missouri State Board approved
- Prepares for national certification exam
- Hybrid format with two on-campus residencies
- 64 total credit hours with 1,000 clinical hours
- Full- and part-time options with four-year completion
- Eligible for ANCC and AANP certification
- Faculty advisors individually assigned
Northeastern University
#3Boston, MA · ~$29,000/yr (est.)
Best for: Experienced RNs ready for intensive Boston hybrid format
Northeastern pairs primarily online coursework with two required clinical intensive weekends in Boston, giving distance students structured in-person skill building without relocating. The MSN asks for at least one year of RN experience, waives the GRE, and coordinates placements within about 100 miles of home, while graduate certificate tracks let already-certified APRNs add FNP credentials. With a 91% graduation rate, an average net price near $30,900, and median former-student earnings around $92,500, the university posts some of the strongest outcome numbers on this list.
- Hybrid: online coursework plus two Boston intensives
- 47 credits and 750 clinical hours
- No GRE required; one year of RN experience required
- Clinical placements typically within 100 miles of home
- Full-time or part-time with fall and spring starts
- Clinical placement office coordinates practicums
- For APRNs who already hold a master's degree
- 19 to 29 semester hours depending on prior certification
- Hybrid with on-campus sessions in Boston
- Prepares graduates for FNP national certification
- For licensed pediatric NPs and pediatric CNSs
- 19 credits building on pediatric expertise
- Coursework in adult, older adult, and women's health
- Eligible for national FNP certification
- For licensed nurse midwives adding FNP credentials
- Leverages midwifery background with targeted coursework
- Practicums in community health centers and private practices
- Prepares for national certification exams
University of Michigan
#4Ann Arbor, MI · $29,000 – $58,000/yr
Michigan offers its Primary Care FNP as a digital education option: most coursework is online, with three on-campus days per term in Ann Arbor for skills labs and simulations. Two-year and three-year plans suit working nurses, and a combined nurse-midwifery and FNP pathway leads to dual certification eligibility. Clinical placements are coordinated within Michigan communities. The university posts a 93% graduation rate, an average net price near $13,100, and median earnings around $83,600.
- Digital education option with three on-campus days per term
- Two-year and three-year plans of study
- Family-centered health promotion across the lifespan
- Clinical experience and prerequisite coursework required
- Dual eligibility for nurse-midwifery and FNP certification
- Hybrid curriculum with extensive clinical practice
- Three-year plan of study available
- Accredited by CCNE
- Online format with three on-campus days per term
- Three-year and four-year plans accommodate working nurses
- Emphasizes leadership and evidence-based practice
- Career paths include urgent care and community health
- Dual certification in both specialties
- Four-year program with diverse clinical sites
- Combines maternal health with lifespan primary care
University of South Carolina
#5Columbia, SC · $14,000/yr
This online MSN-FNP is deliberately paced for working nurses, covering 47 credits across eight semesters with summer, fall, and spring entry points. Applicants need 2,400 hours of recent RN experience, and post-master's certificate and hybrid DNP options extend the pathway for graduate-prepared nurses. The university participates in NC-SARA, and an out-of-state nursing scholarship narrows the price gap for non-residents. It reports a 79% graduation rate, an average net price near $22,800, and median earnings around $62,200.
- Online delivery with summer and fall admissions
- Requires 2,400 hours of RN experience within 24 months
- 3.0 minimum GPA and three professional references
- Clinical training focused on family practice settings
- Online with 18 to 32 credit hours
- Practicum courses plus some on-campus immersion
- Eligible for national FNP certification
- Requires a master's degree in nursing
- Hybrid: online classes with on-campus immersions
- Ranked No. 1 by U.S. News in 2023
- Accredited Clinical Simulation Center for skills practice
- Prepares for national FNP certification
University of South Alabama
#6Mobile, AL · $9,000/yr
South Alabama keeps FNP education accessible with a hybrid MSN that combines online coursework with on-campus clinical skills intensives, and many students complete clinical hours locally with approved preceptors. Unusual dual-role tracks pair FNP with emergency or adult-gerontology acute care preparation, and a fully online DNP-FNP adds a doctoral route. The university participates in NC-SARA but restricts some tracks based on state board requirements. Its average net price is near $17,600, with a 53% graduation rate and median former-student earnings around $49,400.
- Hybrid: online coursework with clinical skills intensives
- 45 credit hours; first practicum 180 hours, final 240
- Clinical hours often completed locally with approved preceptors
- BSN-MSN and RN-MSN pathways available
- 57 credit hours with 840 practicum hours
- Prepares for both FNP and ENP board exams
- Online didactic with mandatory clinical intensives
- Not available in all states; verify approval
- Requires one year of recent ICU or emergency department experience
- Two on-campus Clinical Skills Intensives required
- Eligible for FNP and AGACNP certification
- Fully online classes with one on-campus intensive
- 69 credit hours with more than 1,100 clinical hours
- Evidence-based scholarly project capstone, no thesis
- BSN and MSN entry points available
University of Missouri-Kansas City
#7Kansas City, MO · $14,000 – $32,000/yr
UMKC's CCNE-accredited FNP programs blend online synchronous classes with on-campus residencies, giving students a consistent structure with full- or part-time pacing. The MSN spans 46 credits at roughly $923 per credit, the DNP covers 74 credits with summer residencies, and a post-MSN certificate serves nurses who already hold a graduate degree. Clinical experiences are precepted in community settings. The institution posts an average net price near $13,300, a 55% graduation rate, and median earnings around $59,600.
- Hybrid with online synchronous classes and campus residencies
- 46 credit hours; estimated cost $42,446.50
- $922.75 per credit hour
- 3.2 GPA required; no entrance exam
- Precepted clinical experiences in community settings
- For nurses who already hold a master's degree
- 18 credit hours with pharmacology and synthesis practicum
- Hybrid blend of online coursework and campus sessions
- Prepares for national FNP certification
- 74 credit hours over four to five years
- $922 per credit; summer residencies required
- Clinical rotations arranged near home
- CCNE accredited
University of New Hampshire
#8Durham, NH · $17,000/yr
UNH delivers its Primary Care FNP fully online, with a 51-credit MSN that full-time students can finish in 27 months and a post-baccalaureate DNP that runs asynchronously for up to 48 months. Both the master's and doctoral tracks build in 750 clinical hours, and all three pathways carry CCNE accreditation. Applicants need a 3.2 GPA, undergraduate statistics and research coursework, and an unencumbered RN license. The university's average net price is near $23,800, with a 76% graduation rate and median earnings around $66,500.
- Fully online; full-time completion in 27 months
- 51 credit hours with 750 clinical hours
- Requires 3.2 GPA, statistics and research prerequisites
- Part-time track available for working nurses
- Online; 48 credits across 16 courses
- 750 clinical hours and national certification eligibility
- Course waivers possible based on prior MSN
- Clinical placement assistance provided
- Online asynchronous coursework over up to 48 months
- 82 total credit hours with 750 clinical hours
- On-campus intensives for clinical practicum and symposium
- Doctoral scholarly project required
University of Virginia
#9Charlottesville, VA · $24,000/yr
UVA's FNP options carry the weight of a top public research university, with a hybrid MSN that can be completed in two years full-time or three years part-time and costs about $25,800 for Virginia residents. A hybrid DNP-FNP adds a doctoral path with monthly on-campus intensives, and a post-master's certificate serves nurses who already hold an MSN. Graduates are prepared for ANCC or AANPBC certification. The university reports a 96% graduation rate, an average net price near $21,600, and median earnings around $86,900.
- Hybrid; two years full-time or three years part-time
- Tuition about $25,756 for Virginia residents
- One year of RN experience required; no GRE
- Eligible for ANCC or AANPBC certification
- 23 credits with 616 clinical hours
- Practicums in rural and underserved settings
- Hybrid curriculum for MSN-prepared nurses
- Prepares for national certification
- Hybrid with monthly on-campus intensives
- 750 clinical hours at $914 per credit
- Faculty assistance securing clinical placements
- Graduates prepared for ANCC or AANPBC certification
University of Alabama at Birmingham
#10Birmingham, AL · $9,000/yr
UAB's hybrid MSN-FNP is built for part-time study, spanning six or seven semesters with 45 credits at $723 per credit, and the GRE is waived for applicants with a GPA of 3.2 or higher. A post-graduate APRN certificate lets already-certified nurses add FNP as a second specialty, while the CCNE-accredited DNP-FNP covers 79 credits over nine or ten semesters. Clinical experiences prepare graduates for primary care practice across the lifespan. The institution reports a 64% graduation rate, an average net price near $18,700, and median earnings around $54,500.
- Hybrid; 45 credits over six or seven semesters
- $723 per credit hour
- GRE waived for GPA of 3.2 or higher
- Summer and fall start terms
- For MSN-prepared nurses with current APRN certification
- At least 27 credit hours with gap analysis
- Summer entry; $723 per credit hour
- Prepares for FNP certification
- Hybrid; 79 credits over nine or ten semesters
- GRE or GMAT required for admission
- 20 credit hours of clinical practica
- CCNE accredited
DePaul University
#11Chicago, IL · ~$23,000/yr (est.)
DePaul approaches FNP education with a strong emphasis on ethical and political engagement, preparing graduates to deliver equitable, population-based primary care. The hybrid MSN includes 500 clinical hours, the fully online post-master's certificate requires 600, and the online DNP concentrates on translating evidence into practice. Students draw on DePaul's Chicago-area hospital connections and a renovated simulation lab. The university posts a 68% graduation rate, an average net price near $30,900, and median earnings around $68,800.
- Hybrid; 500 clinical hours in diverse settings
- Covers primary care across the lifespan
- Includes biostatistics, epidemiology, and research synthesis
- Prepares for national FNP certification
- 100% online asynchronous format
- 43 to 44 credit hours with 600 clinical hours
- Eligible for Federal Student Aid
- Rolling admissions with four annual deadlines
- Online; 52-credit advanced practice core
- Two advanced nurse practitioner practicums
- Population health framework emphasizing safety and quality
University of Missouri
#12Columbia, MO · $14,000/yr
Missouri's FNP programs center on comprehensive primary care with a particular focus on rural and underserved populations, a strong fit for nurses planning community health careers. The hybrid MSN, the 19.5-credit online graduate certificate, and the 72-credit DNP with FNP emphasis all prepare graduates for ANCC or AANPCB certification. The curriculum stresses evidence-based practice, leadership, and collaborative care. The flagship institution reports a 75% graduation rate, an average net price near $20,300, and median earnings around $63,400.
- Hybrid; focuses on rural and underserved populations
- Prepares for ANCC or AANPCB certification
- Health promotion, disease prevention, and clinical management
- Care for all ages
- Online; 19.5 credit hours
- For nurses with a master's and APRN certification
- Diagnosing and treating acute and chronic conditions
- Independent and collaborative care emphasis
- Hybrid; 72 total credit hours
- DNP Residency Project required
- Care across the lifespan from birth to older adulthood
- Prepares for FNP roles in clinics and community health
Accelerated FNP Tracks: Which Programs Can You Actually Finish in 12 Months?
What "12 Months" Actually Means
A true 12-month MSN-FNP and a 12-month post-master's certificate are not interchangeable. The first compresses an entire graduate nursing degree into one year, unlike direct entry MSN programs that admit students without a BSN. The second assumes you already hold a master's in nursing and only need FNP-specific coursework and clinical hours. Many "12-month FNP" search results are certificates, not MSN degrees. The distinction changes admissions requirements, credit load, and what you are eligible to sit for after graduation.
Genuine 12-Month MSN-FNP Tracks
Genuine 12-month family nurse practitioner MSN options are rare. Mississippi University for Women offers a CCNE-accredited 12-month MSN FNP designed for BSN-prepared RNs with roughly two years of experience; the 39-semester-hour load makes it intentionally intensive. National University advertises a 12-month online FNP path that requires nursing director approval, so treat it as a restricted fast track rather than a standard option. University of North Alabama, often described as a 12-month program, more accurately frames its post-BSN MSN FNP as 12 to 24 months full-time depending on course load.
Where the Certificate Model Fits
If you already hold a master's degree, a post-master's certificate is often the realistic 12-month route. Hawai'i Pacific University lists a 12-month FNP certificate for post-master's nurses. Other post-master's FNP certificates take longer: St. Thomas University's runs about 24 months, and Capella University's about 30 months. Before enrolling, ask whether a 12-month option is a full MSN or a certificate for nurses who already have a graduate degree.
Time and Clinical Hours
Treat an accelerated FNP track as a full-time job. A practical estimate is 30 to 50 hours per week across classes, reading, simulation, and clinical placement. Many students reduce bedside shifts or move to per diem work, and advisors generally discourage trying to keep a full-time RN schedule during the compressed months. Published weekly hour estimates are uncommon, but the full-time structure is consistent across the fastest tracks.
Speed does not shrink requirements. Expect 500 to 700 or more supervised clinical hours no matter the timeline. Franciscan Missionaries of Our Lady University, for example, builds 750 clinical hours into its 44-credit MSN-FNP, which takes two to three years. A 12-month program packs the same category of requirements into a much shorter window.
MSN-FNP Vs. Post-Master's FNP Certificate at a Glance
Nurses weighing the FNP path often ask whether they need a full MSN or can add an FNP specialty through a shorter certificate. The answer depends on the degree you already hold. Both routes lead to the same AANP or ANCC board certification exam eligibility, so the real differences come down to time, credits, and prerequisites.
The Most Affordable Online FNP Programs Worth Considering
Tuition is only one piece of the puzzle when budgeting for an FNP program. The net price figures below are institution-wide averages drawn from federal data (IPEDS and College Scorecard, 2024) and reflect financial aid that undergraduates and graduate students may receive; they are not guaranteed FNP-specific totals. Beyond published tuition, expect to spend an additional $2,000 to $5,000 or more on clinical travel, certification exam fees, background checks, liability insurance, and preceptor placement services. Always request a program-specific cost breakdown before committing.
| School | State | In-State Tuition | Out-of-State Tuition | Net Price (Institutional Average) | Median Graduate Debt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| University of Michigan | MI | $17,736 | $60,946 | $13,138 | $19,500 |
| University of Missouri, Kansas City | MO | $12,587 | $30,227 | $13,310 | $18,750 |
| University of Toledo | OH | $12,744 | $22,104 | $17,249 | $22,250 |
| University of South Alabama | AL | $10,116 | $19,092 | $17,648 | $24,929 |
| University of Alabama at Birmingham | AL | $9,098 | $22,562 | $18,749 | $22,300 |
FNP Entry Points: BSN-To-MSN, RN-To-MSN, Post-Master's, and DNP Pathways
Roughly 88% of nurse practitioners hold a master's or higher, according to the American Association of Nurse Practitioners, and how you get there depends entirely on where you're starting from. Four pathways dominate FNP education, and each carries a different credit load, timeline, and audience.
BSN-to-MSN: The Standard Route
If you already hold a bachelor's in nursing and an active RN license, BSN to FNP online programs are the most direct path. Expect roughly 45 to 55 graduate credits and a timeline of two to three years full-time, longer part-time. This route suits working nurses who want a focused clinical master's without committing to a doctoral program. It's also where most of the online FNP market sits, so program selection is widest here.
RN-to-MSN: The ADN Bridge
For RNs whose highest degree is an associate's, RN-to-MSN programs fold BSN-level coursework into a single continuous track. You'll typically complete bridge courses in leadership, research, and community health before moving into the graduate core. Total credit counts run higher, often 60 to 75, and timelines stretch to three or four years. This pathway makes sense if you don't want to earn a standalone BSN first.
Post-Master's FNP Certificate
Already hold an MSN in another specialty, say adult-gerontology or psychiatric mental health? A post-master's certificate lets you add family practice scope without repeating the full master's. These programs generally run 15 to 30 credits and one to two years, with clinical hours calibrated to fill gaps in your existing preparation.
BSN-to-DNP and Post-Master's DNP
DNP FNP programs online represent the terminal degree route. A BSN-to-DNP typically requires 70 to 90 credits over three to four years, while a post-master's DNP for existing FNPs runs shorter, often 30 to 40 credits. Choose this path if you want leadership, systems-level, or faculty roles, or if you want to future-proof against any eventual entry-to-practice shift.
One Constant Across All Four
No matter which pathway you pick, no 100% online FNP program eliminates in-person clinical hours. Every accredited route requires 500-plus supervised patient care hours with a qualified preceptor. The coursework travels through your laptop; the clinical work does not.
Clinical Hours, Preceptor Placement, and What Online Students Should Expect
Clinical placement is where online FNP convenience meets real-world logistics, and it remains the single biggest variable in program quality. Even a well-designed curriculum falls apart if you cannot secure a preceptor in time.
Clinical Hour Expectations
For MSN-FNP students, direct patient care hours typically run from 500 to 720. Among well-known online programs, South Alabama requires 600 hours, Chamberlain 625, Vanderbilt 630, and Georgetown and WGU 650. WGU's Kansas track lists 750 hours. DNP-FNP tracks demand more, and DNP program expectations include heavier clinical hour totals. Georgetown's DNP-FNP requires 1,050 clinical hours. Lab work may be counted separately from direct patient care hours, so read each program's breakdown carefully.
Who Finds Your Preceptor
The three most common sourcing models differ in how much legwork falls on you.
- Program-arranged: Georgetown's placement team arranges or approves sites and preceptors, though students can submit referrals for vetting.
- Student-sourced with approval: South Alabama, Chamberlain, and WGU expect students to find their own preceptors. Placement is not guaranteed, and WGU requires a minimum of two sites and two preceptors before approval.
- Regional or hybrid support: Vanderbilt assigns sites for Middle Tennessee students, but students outside that area typically find their own preceptors and sites without a placement guarantee.
When a program does not arrange placements, some students turn to third-party clinical placement services. That can solve the search problem, but it shifts cost and vetting responsibility to the student and may not be advertised up front.
Logistics to Plan For
Geographic restrictions and state authorization rules directly affect where clinicals can happen. A program may say clinicals occur in your home community, but actual availability depends on affiliation agreements, preceptor credentials, and state board requirements. Travel costs can appear even in supposedly local placements, especially if an assigned site sits many miles away. Plan to secure placements months ahead of your rotation; student-sourced models require early outreach and backup options. Before enrolling, ask exactly who identifies the preceptor, what happens if a placement falls through, and how far you may need to travel.
Board Certification Pass Rates: How Online FNP Graduates Perform
Board certification pass rates are the transparency test that separates credible online FNP programs from programs that market outcomes without evidence. The gap between the strongest published numbers and the national average is striking.
Where the Strongest Published Numbers Land
Georgetown University reports first-time pass rates for its online MSN FNP graduates of 100% on both the AANP and ANCC exams in 2023, 2024, and 2025, with 98% AANP and 100% ANCC in 2022. By comparison, 2025 national reference rates are 81% for AANP and 82% for ANCC, and 2024 figures were 83% for both. The national picture has shifted over time; older 2019 benchmarks were higher at 86% AANP and 87.2% ANCC.
Vanderbilt's published Family NP pass rates, which the program does not explicitly label as first-time, ranged from 90% to 95% for AANP and 93% to 100% for ANCC across its MSN track from 2023 to 2025. Its post-master's certificate AANP rates rose from 86% in 2023 to 100% in 2024 and 2025.
Why Pass Rates Matter Beyond Bragging Rights
Employers and state boards increasingly track certification outcomes, and programs with rates that sit well below roughly 80% may draw accreditation scrutiny. A high first-time pass rate also saves graduates money and time; retaking an exam delays licensure and can postpone job start dates.
What the Data Cannot Tell You
Not every online FNP program publishes pass rates publicly. In this review, no program-reported first-time pass rates were available for University of South Alabama, Simmons, Maryville, or Chamberlain, so their current performance cannot be stated from available evidence. Even when schools do report figures, those numbers are often self-reported and may not match independently verified certification body data. Treat published rates as a useful signal, not a guarantee.
How We Evaluated These Online FNP Programs
Choosing among dozens of accredited online FNP programs requires weighing factors that often pull in opposite directions: a lower tuition price may mean fewer support services, while a prestigious institution may not offer the flexible scheduling a working RN needs. Our evaluation method was designed to balance those competing priorities transparently.
What We Measured
We scored each program on a weighted composite that rewards genuine online-delivery availability alongside traditional quality markers. The specific factors and their approximate influence on the final score include:
- Net price (roughly 30%): What students actually pay after financial aid, drawn from federal College Scorecard data.
- Institutional graduation rate (roughly 25%): This reflects the school-wide completion rate reported through IPEDS, not a program-specific figure. It serves as a proxy for institutional support, but it does not isolate FNP student outcomes.
- Program-level median earnings (roughly 20%): Where available, we used College Scorecard earnings data for graduates of each specific program. When program-level figures were not yet published, that factor was excluded from the composite rather than estimated.
- Online availability (roughly 15%): Programs offering fully online didactic coursework scored higher than hybrid models requiring regular campus visits.
- Accreditation status (roughly 10%): We confirmed each program's standing through CCNE or ACEN directories. Unaccredited programs were not considered.
What the Ranking Does Not Capture
No composite score can reflect everything that matters. Our methodology does not measure clinical placement quality, individual student satisfaction, or FNP board certification pass rates. Those topics are addressed qualitatively in other sections of this guide, where nuance matters more than a number.
Data Sources
All quantitative inputs come from publicly available federal databases, specifically the College Scorecard and IPEDS, along with accreditation directories maintained by CCNE and ACEN. We did not rely on self-reported institutional data or paid survey responses.